Optimized geometries of fiber reinforcement of cement, ceramic and polymeric based composites

ABSTRACT

Fibers, continuous or discontinuous, and bars having optimized geometries for use in the reinforcement of cement, ceramic and polymeric based matrices are claimed. The geometries are designed to increase the ratio of surface area available for bond between the fiber and the matrix to the cross-sectional area of fiber. In the case of a continuous reinforcement comprised of a single fiber or a bar made out of a bundle of fibers, such as is the case in reinforced and prestressed concrete, increasing the surface area available for bond leads to a decrease in crack width, development length, and transfer length. The fibers or bars are also configured to be amenable for twisting or to have spiral like deformations along their longitudinal axis to further develop the mechanical component of bond between the fibers and the matrix. Additional methods of mechanical bond enhancement, such as crimping and/or addition of anchorages, such as hooked ends, paddles, buttons, etc. . . . , can be applied to the claimed fibers to further improve their bond characteristics.

This is is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/707,589,filed Sep. 5, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,989,713.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to continuous or discontinuous fibers orbars of optimized geometries for reinforcement of cement, ceramic, andpolymeric based matrices. More specifically, the present inventionrelates to fibers of optimized geometries in which the ratio of lateralsurface area available for bond per unit length of fiber to thecross-sectional area of the fiber, is larger than the correspondingratio of a cylindrical fiber of same cross-sectional area.

2. Background Information

Cement and ceramic matrices are brittle in nature. They generally have acompressive strength much higher than their tensile strength. Thus, theytend to crack under tensile stresses. The addition of discontinuousfibers to the mixture has lead to improvements in numerous mechanicalproperties such as tensile and bending strength, energy absorption,toughness, etc.

Currently available fibers for cement based matrices can be classifiedaccording to the material of which they are made. Steel fibers can befound in different forms: round (cut from wire), flat (sheared fromsteel sheets), and irregularly shaped from melt. Their bond is generallyenhanced by mechanical deformations such as crimping, adding hooks orpaddles at their ends, or roughening their surface.

Glass and carbon fibers generally come in bundles or strands, eachstrand having a number of filaments. Polymeric fibers come in variousforms including monofilament, fibrillated film network, bundles, twistedyams, braided strands as well as other forms. They may have a treatedsurface (etching or plasma treatment) to improve bond.

A continuous fiber or bar is defined as a fiber at least as long as theelement or part of the element it is meant to reinforce; the term"continuous" may also refer to a fiber having a very high aspect ratio,defined as length over equivalent diameter. A bar can be made from asingle fiber or a bundle of fibers. Of particular interest to thisinvention are fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) reinforcements in the formof bars for use in reinforced and prestressed concrete structures.

FRP reinforcements are essentially made from a bundle of strong stifffibers embedded in a polymeric matrix such as an epoxy resin to form abar-like reinforcing element. FRP reinforcements come in the form ofbars, tendons, strands, and two or three dimensional meshes. FRPreinforcements utilizing high performance fibers such as carbon, glass,aramid (kevlar), and others, are seen primarily as a means to avoidcorrosion problems otherwise encountered in concrete structuresreinforced with conventional steel reinforcing bars or steelprestressing tendons. Their non-magnetic properties make them ideal forspecial applications such as radar stations and structures for magneticlevitation trains. Moreover, they can be beneficially used in structuressubjected to certain chemicals and other harsh environments. However,one of the main drawbacks so far of FRP reinforcements has been theirpoor bond in comparison to conventional steel reinforcing bars orprestressing tendons.

As shown in FIG. 1, when a cementitous matrix reinforced withdiscontinuous fibers is subjected to a monotonic uniaxial load intension, the following observations are generally made: 1) an initialalmost linear response is observed (portion OA), followed by cracking;2) the onset of cracking corresponds about to the deviation fromlinearity; 3) given the proper conditions (fiber and matrix reinforcingparameters) multiple cracking may occur (portion AB); 4) crack anddamage localization follows stage 2 or 3; that is one main crack becomescritical and failure is imminent (point B); and 5) failure generallyoccurs by further opening of the critical crack (portion beyond B). Whenstrong fibers are used, failure is generally characterized by fiberspulling out from the matrix. This implies that the bond between thefibers and the matrix essentially controls the maximum compositestrength (point B of FIG. 1) that can be achieved. Furthermore, while itis desirable to utilize the strength of the fiber to the maximum extentpossible, it is also desirable to allow the fibers to pull-out justbefore they break, in order to improve energy absorption and toughness.This bond failure is preferred, but at as high a value of stress as canpossibly be achieved.

In current practice, where steel fibers are used with aspect ratios(length over diameter) of less than about 100, the average tensilestress induced in the fiber by bond at failure of the composite is onlya fraction of the strength of the fiber. In analyzing the mechanics offiber pull-out, the tensile stress in the fiber can be expressed in thefollowing form:

    σ.sub.t =P/A=(Σ.sub.o L.sub.e τ)/A≦σ.sub.fu(1)

where:

P=applied pull-out load

A=cross sectional area of the fiber

Σ_(o) =external perimeter of cross section of fiber

L_(e) =embedded length of fiber

τ=average bond strength at the fiber-matrix interface

σ_(fu) =tensile strength of the fiber

The above equation can be written in the following form:

    σ.sub.t =(Σ.sub.o /A)L.sub.e τ             (2)

It can be observed that, for a given embedment length, L_(e), the fiberstress can be increased when either the bond strength, τ, is increased,or the ratio (Σ_(o) /A) is increased, or both. For a round fiber oflength L and diameter d, multiplying the ratio Σ_(o) /A by L/4 leads toL/d which is commonly referred to as the aspect ratio of the fiber, andis an important parameter in the mechanics of composites reinforced withdiscontinuous fibers.

The tensile stress, σ_(t) (EQ. 2), can be increased by adding mechanicaldeformations to the fiber which increase the mechanical component ofbond and thus improve the overall bond strength, τ In existing art, themechanical component of bond is achieved, for example, by crimping or byproviding hooks or paddles at the ends of the fibers. Crimping, whilesimple with metallic fibers, has the disadvantage of reducing theeffective modulus of the fiber system; that is the effective modulusbecomes smaller than the elastic modulus of the fiber material.

A very efficient method of improving the bond is by twisting the fiber.However, twisting is not always effective, such as: 1) twisting is noteffective with round fibers, 2) twisting cannot be applied uniformly tofibers of irregular cross section, and 3) twisting leads to undesirabletunneling in fibers of flat cross-section; tunnel-like portions aredifficult to penetrate by the matrix, leading to increased porosity,possible sites for stress concentration, and poorer interfacial zonebetween the fiber and the matrix. These effects tend to adversely affectthe mechanical properties of the composite.

As shown above (EQ. 2), the tensile stress, σ_(t), in the fiber can alsobe increased by optimizing the geometry of the fiber such as bymaximizing the external fiber perimeter for a given fibercross-sectional area, that is Σ_(o) /A. Geometrically a round fiber hasa minimum value of Σ_(o) /A when compared to other shapes of same crosssection. Given a monofilament fiber material, one way to improve theratio Σ_(o) /A is, for instance, to use a thin flat fiber. A flat fiberis defined here as a fiber of rectangular cross-section with the largerside being at least twice the smaller side.

However, it has been observed that a flat fiber does not mix with thecement matrix as well as a round fiber. The compactness of the fibersection and its stiffness in all directions, seems to influence therheology of the mix and the performance of the resulting composite. Thisimplies that for mixing purposes, a compact cross-section is better thana flat one.

EQUATION 2 can be rewritten in the following form:

    σ.sub.t =(Σ.sub.o 1/A)L.sub.e /l               (3)

where l represents a unit length of fiber. Thus, the numerator of theratio (Σ_(o) 1/A) represents the lateral area of the fiber per unitlength, and the denominator represents its cross sectional area. It willbe called here the Fiber Intrinsic Efficiency Ratio (FIER). For givenbond conditions, maximizing the FIER should lead to maximizing thestress in the fiber and thus the composite strength prior to fiberpull-out. Thus:

    FIER=(Σ.sub.o ×1)/A                            (4)

Accordingly, there is a need for an improved fiber for reinforcement ofcement, ceramic, and polymeric based composites which provides a higherbond surface per unit cross-sectional area or per unit volume of fiberused. There is also a need for improved fibers for reinforcement ofcement, ceramic, and polymeric based composites which can undergomechanical deformations, particularly effective twisting along theirlongitudinal axis, to develop the mechanical component of bond and thusimprove overall performance.

Finally, there is need for fibers of optimized geometry to improve theascending portion of the pull-out load versus slip curve of the fiber,the maximum pull-out load of the fiber, the stress-strain response ofthe composite under various loadings, and the energy absorbing capacityof the composite.

For the case of continuous fibers or bars the optimized geometriesdeveloped in this invention allow for a higher lateral surface area forbond of a typical reinforcing bar, as well as possible twisting, or theexecution of spiral-like deformations along the longitudinal axis of thebar, to improve the mechanical component of bond. These should lead toimprovements in the composite wherever bond is important, such as inreducing average crack spacing, development length of bars in reinforcedconcrete, and transfer length of prestressed tendons. The increasedlateral surface area of the new bar system developed makes it easier togrip the bar for tensioning in prestressed concrete applications.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides continuous or discontinuous fibers orbars (made either from a single fiber or a bundle of fibers), generallydefined here as fibers, of optimized geometries for reinforcement ofcement, ceramic, and polymeric based matrices.

One object of the present invention is to provide improved fibers forreinforcement of cement, ceramic and polymeric based composites whichprovide a higher bond surface per unit cross-sectional area or per unitvolume of fiber used.

Another object of the present invention is to provide improved fibersfor reinforcement of cement, ceramic, and polymeric based compositeswhich can undergo effective twisting along their longitudinal axis,without forming tunneling, to develop the mechanical component of bondand thus improve overall performance.

It is a further object of the present invention to provide improveddiscontinuous fibers (plain or twisted) having anchorages at their ends,such as hooks or paddles or buttons, to further improve bond and theoverall performance of composites.

It is still a further object of the present invention to provideimproved discontinuous fibers (plain or twisted) crimped along theirlength to further improve bond and the overall performance ofcomposites.

In order to achieve the foregoing objects, the present inventionprovides fibers having optimized cross-sections and longitudinal shapes.The fibers are generally polygonal, having for instance primarilytriangular or primarily square cross-sections instead of normal circularfibers or flat fibers. The optimized cross-sections of the presentinvention provide a lateral surface area for bond higher than that of acircular fiber per unit cross-sectional area or per unit volume offiber. This leads to improved composite performance. Performanceimprovements with discontinuous fibers include greater strength,toughness, energy absorption, and strain capacity. Performanceimprovements with continuous fibers include smaller crack spacing,smaller development length, smaller transfer length, and more effectivegripping during tensioning operations.

The fibers of the present invention having optimized polygonalcross-sections also can undergo effective twisting along theirlongitudinal axis to develop the mechanical component of bond and thusimprove overall performance. Twisting will not work properly withcircular fibers and will lead to tunneling in flat fibers leading topoor penetration by the matrix and potential pores and weak points. Onthe other hand, twisting is very effective with fibers of polygonalcross-section such as triangular or square sections. Because of theefficient geometry of the fiber sections of the present invention, andbecause of the effective twisting (without tunneling), the matrix aroundthe fiber can provide a denser (or less porous) transition zone, thusbetter bond and enhanced properties. While applications of the newfibers can be in all matrices, the primary applications of the newdiscontinuous fibers are in reinforcing cement and ceramic basedmatrices in which the bond between the fiber and the matrix is generallyweak leading to fiber pull-out instead of fiber failure at maximumstrength of the composite. The primary applications of the newcontinuous fibers are in the use of fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) barsin reinforced and prestressed concrete structures.

Twisting as implied here can be applied in one direction only orsimultaneously in alternate directions. Twisting can also be simulatedby scoring the surface or inscribing grooves in a spiral form, or byscoring the surface or inscribing grooves by alternate back and forthrotations along the surface, or by forming spiral grooves along thesurface, during or after manufacturing.

The discontinuous fibers of the present invention having optimizedpolygonal cross-sections can undergo, in addition to twisting, othermechanical deformations such as crimping or hooked ends, to furtherdevelop the mechanical component of bond and thus improve overallperformance.

Further objects, features and advantages of the invention will becomeapparent from a consideration of the following description and theappended claims when taken in connection with the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagrammatical representation of the stress elongationresponse of a prior-art high-performance fiber reinforced cementcomposite for which the maximum post-cracking strength is larger thanthe cracking strength;

FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of the mechanical model for fiberpull-out from a matrix;

FIGS. 3A-3C are cross-sectional views of fibers having triangular orsubstantially triangular optimized cross-sections according to thepresent invention;

FIGS. 4A-4C are cross-sectional views of fibers having square orsubstantially square optimized cross-sections according to the presentinvention;

FIGS. 5A-5B are cross-sectional views of fibers having polygonal orsubstantially polygonal optimized cross-sections according to thepresent invention;

FIGS. 6A and 6B are cross-sectional diagrams comparing thecross-sections of a triangular fiber to a circular fiber and a squarefiber to a circular fiber having equivalent cross-sectional areas,respectively;

FIGS. 7A and 7B are cross-sectional diagrams comparing thecross-sections of a substantially triangular fiber to a circular fiberand a substantially square fiber to a circular fiber having equivalentperimeters, respectively;

FIG. 8A is a schematic view of a twisted substantially square fiber,illustrating the mechanical deformation of the fiber;

FIG. 8B is a schematic view of a substantially square fiber withalternate spiral like deformations illustrating how twisting can also besimulated during fabrication of the fiber;

FIGS. 9A-9D are schematic side views of a discontinuous fiber, plain ortwisted, having hooked ends, paddle or conical ends, button ends, andenlarged ends, respectively;

FIGS. 10A and 10B are cross sectional diagrams of an ideal substantiallytriangular fiber, and an actual substantially triangular fiberillustrating the savings in section that can be achieved with respect tothe circumscribing circular section;

FIGS. 11A and 11B are cross-sectional diagrams of an ideal substantiallysquare fiber, and an actual substantially square fiber illustrating thesavings in section that can be achieved with respect to thecircumscribing circular section;

FIGS. 12A, and 12B are cross-sectional diagrams of typical fibers orbars, continuous or discontinuous, made from a bundle of smallerdiameter fibers and designed according to the present invention;

FIG. 12C is a cross-sectional diagram of a hollow-core fiber or bar,illustrating further improvement of the ratio of lateral surface forbond to the cross-sectional area of the fiber.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

Preferred embodiments of the optimized geometries of discontinuousfibers for reinforcement of cement, ceramic and polymeric basedcomposites are described here below with reference to the drawings.

Based on the observation that the bond at the interface between adiscontinuous fiber and a matrix is the weak link that governs themechanical properties of the composite, it is essential that thepull-out load per fiber, due to bond, be maximized. One way to increasethe pull-out load is by providing a more efficient fiber cross-section.However, it is important to keep the fibers compact in cross-sectionbecause fibers having compact cross-sections are stiffer than flatfibers and can be more easily mixed with the matrix. Generally, fibershaving a flat cross-section are harder to mix than fibers having acompact cross-section.

FIGS. 3-5 show cross-sectional views of several optimized geometries ofdiscontinuous fibers. The substantially triangular fibers, shown inFIGS. 3A-3C, the substantially square fibers, shown in FIGS. 4A-4C, andthe substantially polygonal fibers shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B, provide anincreased Fiber Intrinsic Efficiency Ratio when compared with prior artcircular fibers having the same cross-sectional area or volume.Furthermore, unlike prior art circular and flat fibers, thesubstantially polygonal fibers of the present invention can beeffectively twisted to increase the mechanical component of bond.

FIG. 3A shows the cross-section of an equilateral triangular fiber,indicated generally at 50, according to the present invention.Triangular fiber 50 has three sides, 52, 54, and 56 and three corners58, 60, and 62. The comers 58, 60, and 62 of triangular fiber 50 can berounded for convenience or ease of production, to produce thesubstantially triangular cross-sectional fiber of FIG. 3B, indicatedgenerally at 64. The perimeter or lateral surface to cross-sectionalarea of substantially triangular fiber 64 can further be increased byremoving concave sections 66, 68 and 70 from sides 52, 54 and 56 toproduce the optimized substantially triangular fiber shown in FIG. 3C,indicated generally at 72. In the preferred embodiment, the concavesections 66, 68 and 70 are curved (circular or elliptical), however,alternative shapes are contemplated. For a perfectly circular fibersection of diameter d and cross-sectional area A:

    FIER=(Σ.sub.o ×1)/A=2π(d/2)/π(d/2).sup.2 =4/d

In the case of an equilateral triangular fiber section of side c (FIG.6A):

    FIER=(Σ.sub.o ×1)/A=(3c/0.433c.sup.2)=6.93/c

For an equilateral triangular fiber of the same cross-sectional area asthe circular fiber π(d/2)² =0.433c², or c=1.35d. Thus we have:

    (FIER.sub.triangle /FIER.sub.circle)=(6.93/1.35d)/(4/d)=1.28

Therefore, by using an equilateral triangular fiber 50 having the samecross-sectional area (or weight or volume) as a circular fiber 11, wecan increase the surface area for bond by 28%, as shown in FIG. 6A. Thisimplies also that the average fiber stress at pull-out (EQ. 1) and therelated strength of the composite increase. Reciprocally, for the samecomposite strength and mechanical performance, a material savings can beachieved by using triangular fibers 50 instead of circular ones 11.Similar conclusions can be reached for substantially triangular fibersand optimized substantially triangular fibers such as shown in FIGS. 3Band 3C, respectively. The optimized substantially triangular fiber ofFIG. 3C could lead to even higher savings than the triangular fiber ofFIG. 3A. It can be shown, for instance, that the substantiallytriangular fiber of FIG. 3C has an intrinsic fiber efficiency ratioexceeding twice that of the circumscribing circular fiber. This impliesa material savings of at least 50% in comparison to circular fibers.

FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate ideal and actual sections of substantiallytriangular shape. The ideal section of FIG. 10A has a fiber intrinsicefficiency ratio 4.87 times that of the circumscribing circular fiber.This implies that for the same pull-out load, the cross-section of theideal substantially triangular fiber shown in FIG. 10A can be only 21%that of the circumscribing round fiber. The actual example section ofFIG. 10B has a fiber intrinsic efficiency ratio 2.13 times that of thecircumscribing circular fiber. This implies that for the same pull-outload, the cross-section of the actual substantially triangular fiber ofFIG. 10B can be only 47% that of the circumscribing round fiber. Thisleads to a real savings of more than 50% in the volume fraction offibers used in the composite.

FIG. 4A shows the cross-section of a square fiber, indicated generallyat 10, according to the present invention. Square fiber 10 has foursides, 12, 14, 16, and 18 and four comers 20, 22, 24 and 26. The comers20, 22, 24 and 26 of square fiber 10 can be rounded for convenience orease of production to produce the substantially square fiber of FIG. 4B,indicated generally at 28. The perimeter to cross-sectional surface areaof square fiber 10 or substantially square fiber 28 can be significantlyincreased by removing concave sections 30, 32, 34 and 36 from sides 12,14, 16 and 18 to produce the optimized substantially square fiber shownin FIG. 4C, indicated generally at 38. In the preferred embodiment,sections 30, 32, 34 and 36 are made concave, such as circular orelliptical, however, alternative shapes are contemplated.

Let us consider for instance the case of a square fiber. For a perfectlysquare fiber section of side α and cross-sectional area A:

    FIER=(Σ.sub.o ×1)/A=4a/a.sup.2 =4/a

For a square fiber of the same cross-sectional area as the circularfiber π(d/2)² =α², or α=0.88d. Thus we have:

    (FIER.sub.square /FIER.sub.circle)=(4/0.88d)/(4/d)=1.13.

Therefore, by using square fiber 10 of same total cross-sectional area(or weight, or volume) as circular fiber 11, we increase the surfacearea for bond by 13% as shown in FIGS. 4A and 6B. This implies that theaverage fiber stress at pull-out and the related strength of thecomposite increase. Reciprocally, for the same composite strength andmechanical performance, a material savings can be achieved by usingsquare fibers 10 instead of circular ones 11. Similar conclusions can bereached for substantially square fibers and optimized substantiallysquare fibers such as shown in FIGS. 4B and 4C, respectively.

FIGS. 11A and 11B illustrate ideal and actual sections of substantiallysquare shape. The ideal section of FIG. 11A has a fiber intrinsicefficiency ratio 3.66 times that of the circumscribing circular fiber.This implies that for the same fiber perimeter and pull-out load, thecross-section of the ideal substantially square fiber of FIG. 11A can beonly 28% that of the circumscribing round fiber. The actual examplesection of FIG. 11B has a fiber intrinsic efficiency ratio 1.62 timesthat of the circumscribing circular fiber. This implies that for thesame pull-out load, the cross-section of the actual substantially squarefiber of FIG. 11B can be only 62% that of the circumscribing roundfiber. This leads to a real savings of about 38% in the volume fractionof fibers used in the composite.

FIG. 7A illustrates qualitatively the material savings accomplishedusing optimized substantially triangular fiber 72 having the sameperimeter as a circular fiber 11. Since the perimeters of the two fibers72 and 11 are about the same, there is no loss in the performancecharacteristics, however, there is a substantial savings in materialused (equal to the area between the two perimeters) making optimizedsubstantially triangular fiber 72 much more efficient than circularfiber 11.

FIG. 7B illustrates qualitatively the material savings accomplishedusing optimized substantially square fiber 38 having about the sameperimeter as circular fiber 11. Since the perimeters of the two fibers38 and 11 are about the same, there is no loss in the performancecharacteristics, however, there is a substantial savings in materialused (equal to the area between the two perimeters) making optimizedsubstantially square fiber 38 much more efficient than circular fiber11.

The material savings mentioned above not only translate into costsavings but also produce enhanced performance. Premixing discontinuousfibers with concrete in amounts larger than about 2% to 3% by volume isgenerally difficult as it leads to possible balling, segregation and avery harsh mix. Because the new fibers are much more efficient thancurrently used fibers, less of them are needed to achieve a prescribedlevel of composite performance. This allows easier mixing especiallywhen a high amount of fibers is prescribed. Similarly, with fibercontents of 2% to 3%, high performance cement composites can be easilydeveloped; high performance implies a stress-strain response in tensionwith multiple cracking and quasi-strain hardening behavior as suggestedin FIG. 1.

It is contemplated that, the polygon-like sections shown in FIGS. 3 and4 can also be extended to polygonal and substantially polygonal sectionswith many sides such as shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B. In all cases, theperimeter of the bond surface area can be of the same order as or largerthan that of the circumscribing circular fiber, but the cross-sectionalarea is smaller leading to savings in materials and improvedperformance. In all cases, the fiber intrinsic efficiency ratio of thesubstantially polygonal section is larger than that of thecircumscribing circular section and can be optimized for variousconditions.

The triangular and substantially triangular and square and substantiallysquare fibers of FIGS. 3 and 4, as well as other polygonal sections suchas shown in FIGS. 5, 10, and 11 are relatively compact in cross-section.Therefore, discontinuous fibers having the illustrated cross-sectionsmix well into a matrix as well as provide added strength and efficiencyadvantages. The square and triangular fibers shown are relatively easyto fabricate, adding further manufacturing advantages.

The fiber stress and the corresponding stress in the composite can alsobe increased by improving the mechanical component of bond of the fiber.The mechanical component of bond is increased by forming mechanicaldeformities in the fiber. Such mechanical deformities can includetwisting (as defined earlier) the fiber along its longitudinal axis, asshown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. The optimized cross-sectional geometries ofthe present invention also present advantages over the prior artcircular and flat fibers, in that they can be effectively twisted.Circular fibers do not lead to improved surface deformation upontwisting. Flat fibers, when twisted would form tunnel-like segments thattrap air. These tunnel-like segments may not be penetrated by the matrixand may represent crack initiation points. Polygonal or substantiallypolygonal sections are easily amenable to twisting leading to mechanicalsurface deformations very effective in improving bond.

The optimized cross-sectional geometries of the present invention alsopresent advantages regarding the mechanical component of bond in that,in addition to twisting, they can undergo mechanical deformationssimilar to those used in prior art, such as by crimping or addition ofvarious anchorages. As shown in FIGS. 9A-9D, the anchorages can include,among other things, hooked ends 80, FIG. 9A, paddle ends 82, FIG. 9B,button ends 84, FIG. 9C or enlarged ends 86, FIG. 9D. These mechanicaldeformations, when deemed needed, help improve overall performance.

A continuous fiber or bar may be made of a single filament or a bundleof them. FIGS. 12A to 12C illustrate preferred cross-sections ofcontinuous bars made with a bundle of filament fibers. The individualfibers may be circular or of optimized shape according to thisinvention. The statements made in prior sections related to the shapeand geometry of the preferred embodiments apply to continuous as well asdiscontinuous fibers and bars; issues related to mixing, fiber pull-out,and end-anchorages do not apply to continuous fibers. For instance, thecontinuous bar of FIG. 12A has a ratio of lateral surface tocross-section more than twice that of the circumscribing circular bar.Thus, its development length when used in reinforced concrete, or itstransfer length when used in prestressed concrete is expected to be lessthan 50% of that of the circumscribing circular bar. Using a similarreasoning related to bond forces, it is expected that the bar of FIG.12A will produce about half average crack spacing than thecircumscribing circular bar. Further improvement can also be achieved byusing hollow-core bars, such as illustrated in FIG. 12C, in which thecross-sectional area is reduced leading to a higher fiber intrinsicefficiency ratio.

It is to be understood that this invention is not limited to the exactconstruction illustrated and described above, but that various changesand modifications may be made without departing from the spirit andscope of the invention as defined in the following claims.

I claim:
 1. A composite structure comprising:a matrix material; and afiber having a polygonal cross-section with surface faces wherein atleast two adjacent surface faces intersect at an angle other than a 90degree angle, said polygonal fiber having a fiber intrinsic efficiencyratio greater than that of a cylindrical fiber having the same crosssectional area as said polygonal fiber, the fiber intrinsic efficiencyratio being the ratio of the lateral surface area of a particular fiberper unit length relative to the cross sectional area of that particularfiber.
 2. The composite structure of claim 1 wherein said fiber hasthree outside surface faces.
 3. The composite structure of claim 1wherein said fiber has a longitudinal axis, and said fiber is twistedalong said longitudinal axis.
 4. The composite structure of claim 1wherein said fiber has a longitudinal axis, and said fiber ismechanically deformed along said longitudinal axis.
 5. The compositestructure of claim 1 wherein said fiber has a first end and a second enddisplaced along a longitudinal axis of said fiber, and one of said firstend and said second end is a discontinuous cross sectional shaperelative to a remainder of said fiber.
 6. The composite structure ofclaim 5 wherein said one of said first end and second end ismechanically deformed to provide said discontinuous cross sectionalshape.
 7. The composite structure of claim 1 wherein said fiber iscomprised of a plurality of filament fibers.
 8. The composite structureof claim 7 wherein said fiber has a longitudinal axis, and said fiber istwisted along said longitudinal axis.
 9. The composite structure ofclaim 1 wherein said matrix material is cement based.
 10. The compositestructure of claim 1 wherein said matrix material is ceramic based. 11.The composite structure of claim 1 wherein said matrix material ispolymeric based.
 12. A composite structure comprising:a matrix material;and a substantially triangular fiber having three outside surface faces,said triangular fiber having a fiber intrinsic efficiency ratio greaterthan that of a cylindrical fiber having the same cross sectional area assaid polygonal cross-section fiber, the fiber intrinsic efficiency ratiobeing the ratio of the lateral surface area of a particular fiber perunit length relative to the cross sectional area of that particularfiber.
 13. The composite structure of claim 12 wherein said triangularfiber has a longitudinal axis, and said triangular fiber is twistedalong said longitudinal axis.
 14. The composite structure of claim 12wherein said triangular fiber has a longitudinal axis, and saidtriangular fiber is mechanically deformed along said longitudinal axis.15. The composite structure of claim 12 wherein said triangular fiberhas a first end and a second end displaced along a longitudinal axis ofsaid triangular fiber, and one of said first end and said second end isa discontinuous cross sectional shape relative to a remainder of saidtriangular fiber.
 16. The composite structure of claim 15 wherein saidone of said first end and second end is mechanically deformed to providesaid discontinuous cross sectional shape.
 17. The composite structure ofclaim 12 wherein said triangular fiber is comprised of a plurality offilament fibers.
 18. The composite structure of claim 17 wherein saidtriangular fiber has a longitudinal axis, and said triangular fiber istwisted along said longitudinal axis.
 19. The composite structure ofclaim 12 wherein said matrix material is cement based.
 20. The compositestructure of claim 12 wherein said matrix material is ceramic based. 21.The composite structure of claim 12 wherein said matrix material ispolymeric based.